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MARK5811 AMR6
Observation and Focus Groups
T3-2023
Lecture structure for this week
• Course issues and questions
• Last topic: AMR5: Interviewing
• Observational approach
• Analyse and interpret observational data
• Advantages and disadvantages of the observational approach
• Purpose of focus groups
• Plan and facilitate the running of a focus group
• Next topic: AMR7: Survey (I)
• Lecture summary
Observation
• Observation involves the systematic viewing of people’s
actions and the recording, analysis and interpretation of their
behaviour.
• Observation is not simply a question of looking at something
and then noting down ‘the facts’. Observation is a complex
combination of sensation (sight, sound, touch, smell and even
taste) and perception, through which we develop patterns, the
mental structures we use to organize and simplify our
knowledge of the world around us. We use them to classify
things, such as when we ‘pigeon-hole’ people. They also help
us forecast, predicting what will happen.
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Observation roles
Non-participant observation
• Observation is conducted in a way that the subjects’ behaviour is
disturbed as little as possible by the observation process.
• The researcher aims to maintain a position of detachment and
independence from subjects, keeping a physical and emotional
distance from the group they are researching.
• Use checklists or observational schedules to note behaviour.
Sometimes behaviour may be recorded using audio or visual
media.
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Overt and covert observation
• Overt observation is where those being observed are aware
that the observation is taking place.
• Covert observation is where those being observed are unaware
that the observation is taking place.
• One argument in favour of covert observation is that people
may change their behaviour when they know they are being
observed, thus threatening the validity of the results. The
problem with covert observation is that it can be perceived as
unethical.
Field notes (1)
• Field notes are details from all the possible data through the
researcher’s mental constructs, understandings and
interpretations.
➢E.g. who was in the field setting, what did they look like,
what did they say, how did you feel about them, etc.
• Field notes are essential to the success of fieldwork, and
comprise everything the fieldworker believes to be of
importance.
• Field notes should be written up immediately following the
observation.
Field notes (2)
• Use of wide margins for field notes so that there is space to
add preliminary categories.
• Once the field notes are completed, they can be written up
along with any visual media that have been collected, such as
photographs or audio tapes, and held as a permanent record.
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Structured observation (1)
• It aims to observe and record behaviour in a holistic and
systematic way, usually making use of an observation guide or
coding schedule.
• Some researchers may enter the field and conduct unstructured
observation first, in order to develop the right categories for
the observation guide.
• To minimize bias, the observer may seek to be as unobtrusive
as possible, so that subjects are either unaware of his or her
presence, or at least feel at ease in carrying out their activities.
Structured observation (2)
• Training is essential as the process of observing and noting
specific behaviours is often complex and demanding.
• Structured observation is largely quantitative and focuses on
the frequency of their actions.
• Mintzberg (1970) adopted structured observation as a
methodology that combines the flexibility of open-ended
observation with the discipline of seeking certain types of
structured data.
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The potential advantages and drawbacks of
structured observation
• Advantages
➢ It should result in more reliable data because the results can
be replicated either by the same researcher at a different
time, or by other researchers.
➢ It collects data that participants themselves may not realize
are important.
• Disadvantages
➢The coding schedule might impose an irrelevant framework
on what is being observed.
➢ It is often difficult to categorize observations.
Before observation
• Training observers: The process of conducting structured
observation can be quite complex and demanding. Hence,
training is often essential.
• Deciding on what to observe: It is impossible to observe
everything that takes place in a situation, so it is crucial to
decide what to focus.
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Enhancing validity
• Select cases/settings on the basis of their potential for being
representative of the population.
• Study cases in one field that are similar to cases in another.
• Stay in the field long enough to observe or experience the full
range of routines and behaviours that typify the case.
Enhancing reliability
• Record observed events so that the data can be reviewed and,
if necessary, re-interpreted by another researcher.
• Keep very comprehensive notes, as some details that appeared
hardly relevant at the time of the observation may later prove
to be crucial.
• Triangulation – multiple methods of data collection. Both
quantitative and qualitative data can be combined to form a
coherent picture.
Presenting observational data
• Observational research does not leave the writing up of results
to a later stage – it is an ongoing process right from the start.
This permits the researcher to interact with the data, to expose
gaps in knowledge and identify where further investigation is
required.
• Important issues in the presentation of data include: what to
write; how to write it; and what kinds of claim can be made
based on the data collected.
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Examples of what to write
• The context of the study (physical setting, history, etc.).
• The number of participants.
• The activities taking place.
• Significant events.
• Social rules.
• Quotations should be used to provide the reader with an
opportunity to verify some of the claims made in the report.
• Reports can also include photographs, charts, leaflets and other
visual media.
Observation: Benefits and drawbacks (1)
• The interpretation of what is observed may be influenced by
the researcher/observer, e.g. their values, motivations,
prejudices and emotions. We often ‘see’ what we want to see
and disregard other phenomena that could be important.
• Observation provides an opportunity to get beyond people’s
opinions and self-interpretations of their attitudes and
behaviours, towards an evaluation of their actions in practice.
Observation: Benefits and drawbacks (2)
• If stationed among those who are being observed, the
researcher may influence events.
• Extracting themes and concepts from the data can be quite
challenging.
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Ethical issues in observational studies
• One justification for covert observation is that, by omitting
informed consent, it ‘protects’ subjects from any of the
potentially negative effects of knowing that they are being
observed. This might include apprehension or nervousness.
• Special care must be taken when dealing with groups that are
vulnerable by age, social status or powerlessness.
• If research is covert, anonymity of participants must be
protected and, if possible, informed consent obtained post hoc.
Focus group
Group interviews
• Group interviews such as multiple interviewers and focus
groups.
• An advantage of using group interviews is that costs can be
drastically reduced, while the chance of non-response is
reduced to about zero. But a drawback is that the social nature
of responding may have an influence.
• Multiple Interviewers: It can be very useful to have more than
one interviewer present since different roles can be performed.
For example, one interviewer can act as chairperson,
controlling the pace and direction of the interview, while the
other takes notes.
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Focus group
• A focus group is essentially an organized discussion among a
selected group of individuals. The purpose of focus groups is to
generate interactions and discussions within the group.
• It is to gain a range of perspectives about subjects and
situations.
• Through the provision of a ‘safe’ environment, focus groups
aim to promote self-disclosure among participants.
Focus groups in marketing research
Focus groups are used where companies are interested in
consumers views about their products or services, as well as
their perceptions about price, retail environments and their
reactions to advertising.
Banerjee, Rajlakshmi, and Barry Quinn (2022). “Exploring consumer constructions of local food: Meanings and influences”,
European Journal of Marketing”, Available online. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-02-2020-0093.
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Design and running of a focus group
1. Identify problem/research question
2. Recruit participants
3. Identify moderator
4. Book and prepare facilities including room
5. Generate and pilot interview questions
6. Conduct the group
7. Record data
8. Analyse and interpret data
1. Identify problem/research question
• Focus groups have a focus – an agenda.
• Specifying the research problem/question helps in the
development of questions to be posed in the focus group.
Frontline staff dealing with difficult customers
• Why difficult customers are considered as “difficult”?
• What are the biggest challenges when dealing with difficult
customers?
• What kind of support is required for frontline staff to deal with
difficult customers and why?
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2. Recruit participants
• A highly diverse group, in terms of social class, status or
seniority, might reveal a wide range of viewpoints, but only if
participants are sufficiently relaxed and confident to speak in
each other’s presence.
• The ideal size for this group should be between six and eight
participants.
Frontline staff dealing with difficult customers
• Staff: junior, senior, from various stores.
• Customers who may be identified as “difficult”.
3. Identify moderator (1)
• Moderators need to concentrate on structure and direction
when seeking to control dominant group members, but go into
a more unstructured style once the group has developed its
own dynamics.
• A range of approaches that a moderator should use:
➢Make a good first impression. Establish the tone by making
eye contact, smiling etc.
➢Be clear about intentions and expectations.
➢Create a comfortable atmosphere for participants. Ensure
temperature is at the right level, seats comfortable, lighting
acceptable.
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3. Identify moderator (2)
• A range of approaches that a moderator should use (cont.):
➢Be awake – listen, look, sense what is happening in the
room.
➢Be your natural self – avoid being over formal.
➢Use clear language.
➢Be comfortable with silences.
➢Be culturally sensitive.
➢Have fun.
4. Book and prepare facilities including room
• Ensure seating arrangements encourage discussion. Which of
a), b) and c) would you prefer?
5. Generate and pilot interview questions (1)
• About 12 questions for a two hour focus group session.
Questions will be open in nature, e.g.,
➢When you saw the news about X, what was your immediate
response?
➢What did you think when you first saw Y?
➢What do you feel now when you recall Z?
• There needs to be a balance between general and more specific
questions.
• Questions should move from the general to the specific and
from the most important to the less important.
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5. Generate and pilot interview questions (2)
• Possible ending questions:
➢ ‘All things considered…’, an attempt to determine the final
position of each individual in the group on areas of critical
concern.
➢The moderator gives a short oral summary of the discussion
and participants are asked to comment on its completeness
and accuracy, e.g. ‘Today we have explored the issue of
XYZ. Most of the group are in favour of ….. Would this be
a fair summary of what has been said?’
6. Conduct the group
Moderator should…
• introduce self, including credentials for moderating the meeting.
• provide some personal information (to ‘connect’ with the
group).
• explain the purpose of the focus group.
• provide reassurances about confidentiality (within constraints).
• ask permission for the use of a digital recorder (if required).
• mention logistical issues such as the approximate length of the
session, when breaks are going to be taken, and the location of
facilities such as toilets and safety features such as fire exits
• make clear the ground rules of the session.
• explain what will come out of it (e.g. a company report).
• try not to ask if there are any questions at the beginning as this
may lead to a long discussion that would delays the start.
7. Record data (1)
• Three approaches (i.e. memory, field notes, and audio-
recordings) can capture group discussions (and interactions
between participants).
• Memory: The least reliable forms of data recording. If there
are at least two researchers working in the group, they should
get together immediately after the focus group has finished to
agree and write up some notes.
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7. Record data (2)
• Field Notes: Notes should always include the following
information:
➢The name of the study.
➢The date/time/location of the focus group.
➢The type and number of participants.
➢The names and roles of researchers.
➢A diagram of seating arrangements including a first name
or code for each participant.
• Audio recording: use an external microphone for the digital
recorder.
8. Analyse and interpret data
• Group is the unit of analysis and not the individuals that comprise it
– hence, the aim of data analysis will be to capture the views
expressed by the group as a whole. This means not only an analysis
of the raw data but also of the interactions and group dynamics.
• For multiple focus groups, use a grid, where groups are plotted on
the vertical axis and question numbers on the horizontal axis. This
serves a checklist to ensure all questions need to be asked is asked in
every focus group.
Benefits of focus groups (1)
• Compared to large-scale surveys, focus groups can be
assembled relatively quickly and cheaply and provide data
which researchers can begin analysing almost immediately the
focus group session is finished.
• Focus groups provide opportunities for the clarification of
responses, for posing additional probing questions and for the
observation of non-verbal responses such as gestures, smiles
and frowns.
• Interviews may be better used to identify the range and depth
of individual values and beliefs, but group settings may be
better at generating discussion around shared and unshared
attitudes and experiences.
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Benefits of focus groups (2)
• Focus groups are a useful starting point for exploring
respondents’ views about objects and events, allowing for the
subsequent design of closed-end survey items.
• Focus groups allow researchers to explore the feelings,
attitudes, beliefs, prejudices, reactions and experiences of a
subject, in a way that would not be so accessible through other
approaches such as observation. Sometimes these views might
be held individually, but often they will emerge from social
interactions with other individuals and groups.
• Listening to other people’s memories and experiences triggers
ideas in other participants, especially when participants realize
that they share a common experience, and feel that their views
are validated and supported by others.
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Benefits of focus groups (3)
• Focus groups can:
➢ facilitate the collection of data on group norms.
➢ encourage a greater variety of communication between
participants.
➢ encourage open conversations about sensitive subjects that
might be left less developed through a one-to-one
interview.
➢use conflict between participants to clarify why they
believe what they do.
➢ encourage participation from people who do not want to be
interviewed on their own.
➢help to empower and motivate participants.
Limitations of focus groups (1)
• Moderators have less control or influence over processes and
outcomes, than if, say, the data were being collected through
an interview.
• Some focus group members may come to dominate the
discussions, whilst others may say little or nothing unless
prompted.
• Locating and persuading respondents to take part may also be
a challenge.
• An interview, particularly if it is structured, may take only a
few minutes to complete. A focus group session, however,
might take up at least an hour, or often longer.
Limitations of focus groups (2)
• Focus groups are not appropriate when it is essential to maintain
confidentiality.
• Focus groups are often composed of convenience samples, hence
limiting the generalizability of the results. People who are willing
to travel to a focus group location and give up one or two hours
of their time, may be quite different to the population under
discussion.
• The nature of the data often means that summarization and
interpretation of the results can be challenging. The results may
also have been contaminated by the moderator providing cues as
to what kinds of answers are desirable, especially if the
moderator is inexperienced.
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Ethics and focus groups
• Confidentiality is difficult to keep since statements made by
participants will be heard in a public forum.
• Some participants might voice opinions that are upsetting to
others.
Next Topic: AMR7 – Survey (I)
• Surveys: Overview, types, and process
• Types of questionnaire