28/09/2023
1
MARK5811 AMR5
Interviewing
T3-2023
Lecture structure for this week
• Course issues and questions
• Last topic: AMR4: Sampling Strategies and Case Studies
• Different types of interviews
• Conducting the interview
• Analysing interview data
• Next topic: AMR6: Observation and Focus Groups
• Lecture summary
An interview is a verbal exchange in which one person, the
interviewer, attempts to acquire information from and gain an
understanding of another person, the interviewee.
1
2
3
28/09/2023
2
Why use interviews?
• If the objective of the research is largely exploratory, e.g.,
involving the examination of feelings or attitudes.
• Interview is the favoured approach if respondents are not
fluent in the native language of the country, or where they
have difficulties with written language.
Types of interview
• Structured interview: Pre-prepared, standardised questions
recorded on schedule/recording sheet.
• Semi-structured interview: A list of questions, but the order
may change and not all may be used. Some questions
generated spontaneously as interview progresses.
• Unstructured interview:
➢Non-directive. No pre-prepared questions, but getting the
respondent to talk about the subject.
➢ Informal conversational. No pre-planning. Questions
generated spontaneously as interview progresses.
Structured interviews
• Often used to collect data for quantitative analysis. Use pre-
determined and standardized questions.
• Responses are recorded by the interviewer on a standardized
schedule/sheet. Interaction between interviewer and
respondent is kept to a minimum.
• Ideally, questions are read out in the same tone of voice so as
not to influence answers. Hence, structured interviews are
similar to the use of questionnaires, except that the interviewer
poses the questions; this is one way in which the researcher
hopes that direct contact will increase response rates compared
with postal or online questionnaires.
4
5
6
28/09/2023
3
Semi-structured interviews (1)
• Non-standardized and are often used in qualitative analysis.
• The interviewer has a list of issues and questions to be
covered, but may not deal with all of them in each interview.
• The order of questions may also change depending on what
direction the interview takes. Additional questions may be
asked, including some which were not anticipated at the start
of the interview, as new issues arise. Responses will be
documented by note taking or possibly by recording the
interview.
Semi-structured interviews (2)
• Semi-structured interview allows for probing of views and
opinions for more detailed responses, e.g., the respondent is
asked to clarify what they have said.
• Probing may also allow for the diversion of the interview into
new pathways which, while not originally considered as part
of the interview, help towards meeting the research objectives.
Clarification question examples
• Can you please elaborate ….
• Sorry that I missed it, would you mind saying it again?
• What do you mean by…?
7
8
9
28/09/2023
4
http://www.lasw.org/questions_probing.html
http://www.lasw.org/questions_probing.html
Unstructured interviews: Non-directive
interviews
• Non-directive interviews are used to explore an issue or topic
in depth and questions are generally not pre-planned.
• The researcher must have a notion of the objectives of the
research and what issues are going to be addressed in the
interview.
• The respondents are allowed to talk freely around the subject.
• The input of the interviewer is mainly confined to checking on
any doubtful points and rephrasing answers to check for
accuracy of understanding.
• Like semi-structured interviews, non-directive interviews tend
to collect data for qualitative analysis.
10
11
12
28/09/2023
5
Unstructured interviews: Informal conversational
interviews (1)
• The most open-ended form of interview technique.
• Relies on the spontaneous generation of questions as the
interview progresses.
• Key advantage: Flexibility it offers in terms of what path the
interview takes.
• The interviewee may not even know an interview is taking
place.
Unstructured interviews: Informal conversational
interviews (2)
• Key drawbacks of the conversational interview
➢ It may take some time before the interviewer has posed
similar questions to the set of people being interviewed.
➢The data collected through conversational interviews may
be difficult to analyse because different questions have
been asked of different people.
Getting started: Preparing for the interview (1)
• Interviews cannot be rushed. You should arrive at least 30
minutes before the scheduled interview to make the necessary
preparations and put aside at least an hour after the interview
to make field notes. So, a 45-minute interview could take up to
2–3 hours to complete.
• Allow yourself a clear stretch of time to ensure that the
interview will be conducted in a stress-free and unhurried
fashion.
• Sets out a schedule/protocol that should be followed before the
interview.
13
14
15
28/09/2023
6
Getting started: Preparing for the interview (2)
• It is useful to get respondents to complete a pre-interview
questionnaire dealing with demographic issues (e.g., age,
occupation and other details) so that the interview can focus on
more substantive matters.
• You may have requested material from the respondent, and
you will need time to read and reflect on it.
• Few days before the interview, you need to contact the
respondent to make sure that they are still available.
• The day before the interview you need to check that you have
all the material you need.
16
17
18
28/09/2023
7
Preliminaries at the start of the interview (1)
• The first task of the interviewer is to explain the purpose of the
interview, who the information is for, how the information is
going to be handled (including issues of confidentiality), why
the information is being collected and how it will be used. This
should not require a long speech, but should be done quickly
and simply.
• Importance of the information should be stressed. If the
research has been commissioned by a particular division or
department of the organization this should be made clear.
• Ask permission to record the interview.
Preliminaries at the start of the interview (2)
• Ensure that the seating arrangements are acceptable to both
parties.
➢Sitting closely and face-to-face can feel confrontational and
threatening.
➢ It is usually best to face each other but at a slight angle.
➢Having some furniture such as a table between the
interviewer and respondent also provides something on
which to place note paper and creates safe ‘distance’
between the parties.
➢The seating should also be arranged so that the interviewee
cannot read forthcoming questions or any notes that are
being made.
Building rapport with the respondent (1)
• Rapport means an understanding, one established on a basis of
respect and trust between the interviewer and respondent. You
should:
➢describe how the interview will be conducted, how long it
should last and the general subjects that are to be covered.
➢ ask for permission to record the interview (and listen
attentively for responses and note body language).
➢make guarantees of confidentiality.
➢ ask if the respondent has any questions.
19
20
21
28/09/2023
8
Building rapport with the respondent (2)
• Rapport is important to make the respondent relaxed and to get
the interview off to a good start.
• Remain objective, professional and detached, yet relaxed and
friendly (who said that interviewing was easy?!).
Maintaining control of the interview
• Control is maintained by:
➢ asking the right questions: Listening carefully to responses
and channelling the interview back onto the right tracks if
necessary.
➢giving appropriate verbal and non-verbal feedback: Verbal
and non-verbal communication should be used to provide
appropriate feedback.
Asking questions
• Interview questions should be phrased so that their meaning is
unambiguous, and they should be delivered in as neutral a tone of
voice as possible.
• Certain ways of formulating questions that must be avoided, i.e.
questions that:
➢ contain jargon.
➢use prejudicial language.
➢ are ambiguous.
➢ lead the respondent.
➢ include double questions.
➢probe personal or sensitive issues.
➢ require knowledge the respondent does not possess.
22
23
24
28/09/2023
9
Observing and reflecting
• Careful observing helps to see how the interview is progressing.
• Observation of the respondent’s body language, e.g., if negative
signs are detected, it may mean changing the sequencing of
questions, bringing easier or less controversial questions.
• Self-observation (reflection) is just as important. Self-
understanding helps us to make our questioning and probing
more sensitive. If the interviewer knows that he/she tends to
dominate the conversations, he/she might make a conscious effort
to hold back and leave spaces for the respondent to fill.
25
26
27
28/09/2023
10
Closing the interview
• Check that you have asked all the questions intended to ask.
• Asking the interviewee if they have any questions or final comments
that they would like to make.
• Thank the interviewee for their help and their valuable inputs/views.
Then describe what happens next, particularly in terms of whether
the respondents will be needed for checking the accuracy of
transcripts, and the reporting process and follow-up work.
• Interviewees often make some of their most interesting and valuable
points once they think that the interview is over.
Recording and transcribing data (1)
• Taking notes may be useful for a number of reasons, since it:
➢ can help in the formulation of new questions.
➢provides a means for locating important quotations during
later analysis.
➢ is a non-verbal behaviour that providing the interviewee
with a cue that they have said something significant.
Recording and transcribing data (2)
• The ideal objective is to achieve a full transcription of the
interview. This process is however both expensive and time-
consuming, with perhaps each hour of live interview requiring
between 7 and 10 hours of transcribing. Nevertheless, there is
really no substitute for being able to see all the transcribed data
at a glance during the analysis stage of the research.
28
29
30
28/09/2023
11
31
32
33
28/09/2023
12
34
35
36
28/09/2023
13
Writing up the report
• Reports should contain a table that outlines the basic profile of
interviewees, in terms of their job role, qualifications, experience,
gender and any other criteria that might be considered relevant.
This profile demonstrate to the reader that the interviewees have
the necessary authority or knowledge to comment on the subject.
• Quotations are used to support and illustrate themes.
• Disagreements should be reported because they enhance the
findings, demonstrating a richness of results.
37
38
39
28/09/2023
14
Group interviews
• Group interviews such as multiple interviewers and focus
groups.
• An advantage of using group interviews is that costs can be
drastically reduced, while the chance of non-response is
reduced to about zero. But a drawback is that the social nature
of responding may have an influence.
• Multiple Interviewers: It can be very useful to have more than
one interviewer present since different roles can be performed.
For example, one interviewer can act as chairperson,
controlling the pace and direction of the interview, while the
other takes notes.
40
41
42
28/09/2023
15
Validity (1)
• In the case of structured and semi-structured interviews, the
issue of validity can be directly addressed by attempting to
ensure that the question content directly concentrates on the
research objectives.
• For unstructured interviews, the issue of validity is more
problematic because, by their very nature, the direction
questions take will depend, in large part, on the responses of
the interviewee.
Validity (2)
• Validity is strengthened by:
➢prompting informants to illustrate and expand on their
initial responses.
➢ ensuring that the interview process is sufficiently long for
subjects to be explored in depth.
➢ constructing interviewing schedules/protocol that contain
relevant questions.
• Keep increasing the sample size, or sub-samples that represent
different perspectives, until no new viewpoints are emerging
from the data. This means that interview data need to be
studied and analysed as they are collected.
Reliability and bias (1)
• Even with standardized questions the issue of interviewer bias
comes into play – does the interviewer ask the questions in the
same way and with the same tone of voice with all
respondents?
• Interviewer bias can go into the interview situation in many
ways, e.g.:
➢An interviewer might (unconsciously) give less time to
shopfloor workers when conducting an interview than to
managers.
43
44
45
28/09/2023
16
Reliability and bias (2)
• One way of minimizing interviewer bias is to require all
interviewers to follow the same protocol. Hence, a set of
guidelines might be drawn up which ask the interviewer to read
the questions exactly as they are written, to repeat a question if
asked, to accept a respondent’s refusal to answer a question
without any sign of irritation, and to probe in a non-directive
manner.
Sample size
Enough is the amount where additional participants don’t provide
any additional insights. We call this phenomenon “saturation.”
You reach saturation when you are no longer learning very much
(if anything) from each subsequent interview.
Pros
• In depth exploration.
• Clarification of answers.
• Probes.
Cons
• Time (arranging and
conducting interviews).
• Costs.
• Sample size needs to be
limited.
• Transcription of data (10
hours for one hour
interview).
Pros and cons of interviews
46
47
48
28/09/2023
17
Ethical issues (1)
• Participants should not be harmed or damaged in any way by
the research. If a respondent becomes anxious or upset during
the interview, the session should be stopped immediately.
• Interviewees have the right not to answer any individual
questions or to terminate the interview before its completion. It
is also important that interviews are not used as an opportunity
to sell something to the respondent.
• Informed consent.
• Confidentiality.
Ethical issues (2)
• In dealing with particularly difficult or sensitive topics, the
respondent might ask for practical guidance or advice. It
should be noted that the interviewer is not a counsellor, and
should avoid being drawn into this type of discussion. The
proper course of action would be to offer contact details for
those kinds of organization that could provide help.
• The purpose of research is to collect data, not to change people
or opinions.
Next Topic: AMR6 – Observation and Focus
Groups
• Observational approach
• Advantages and disadvantages of the observational approach
• Analyse and interpret observational data
• Purpose of focus groups
• Plan and facilitate the running of a focus group
49
50
51