Week 3:Consequentialist, non-
consequentialist reasoning and intention:
Morality, ethics and integrity of business and
politics
-MGF 5020, S1 2025
No Poverty, End of hunger and
improved nutrition and promote well-
being [ consequence/ outcomes of
actions]
Facilitating human dignity and
thriving communities.[ sustainable
development: intentions of the
integrated approach
1and
Week2: Learning Objectives
1. The role of ethical theories and perspectives: Understanding of theory
and praxis
2. Introduce normative ethical theories: origins, universalism, and
differences.
a. Interpret virtue ethics & whistleblowing and subjective aspects in ethical
decision-making.
3. Provide a framework for understanding and interpreting ethics for a
pragmatic application of ethical theories
-Praxis, sustainability and ethical practice of business ethical Integrity, trust
& accountability
The Department unit learning outcome (ULO) for all Units:
• Demonstrate knowledge or skills for crafting sustainable futures for
people, organisations, communities, and/or the environment

Week #1
Defining morality, ethics and sustainability
Morality is concerned with the norms, values and beliefs embedded in
social processes which define right and wrong for an individual or a
community.
Ethics is concerned with the study of morality and the application of
reason to elucidate specific rules and principles that determine right
and wrong for any given situation.
These rules and principles are called ethical theories.
This week
Ethical theories are the rules and principles that determine right and
wrong in any given situation
Learning Objective 1: The role of ethical
theories and perspectives: Understanding of
theory and praxis
Why Theory? Or why we are discussing theory and
praxis
• To consider situations systematically
• To consider situations more generally: To help us understand actions
and situations and to guide our further inquiry and decision-making
• BUT: “Theory is of little or no use in the solving of those real-life
ethical problems” (Kaler p. 207)
• No theory is perfect, but each can contribute meaningfully
-> a pluralist perspective

The Primacy of Critique and Praxis
Aristotle (384–322 BCE) discussed the difference between theoria (thinking or
contemplation), poiesis (making or production) and praxis (doing or activity)
(Smith, 2011).
According to the Cambridge Dictionary, Praxis implies the process of using
a theory or something [perspectives] that you have learned in a practical way
Theories are grounded in philosophies and mainly in critical philosophies, and
critical analyses of theories reveal how to transform our human existence.
Here, we see the relevance of discussing praxis.
.
• Smith (2011) suggests : for Aristotle, praxis was “guided by a moral disposition to
act truly and rightly; a concern to further human wellbeing and the good life”. [
will discuss later]
4
praxis
The ancient Greeks referred to them as
theoria, meaning contemplation, and
praxis, the ethical and political form of
being and doing.
The latter, praxis, revolved around
activity, action, and performance—in
essence, doing. It was geared toward
proper behavior in ethical and political.
https://sustainingcommunity.wordpress.com/2020/03/
12/what-is-praxis/
To conceive the function of moral
management
Freire (1972, p. 52) described praxis as “reflection and
action upon the world in order to transform it”.
Traditional perspective:
searching for the best theory
Single normative
consideration for solving
the ethical dilemma
Ethical
Dilemma
‘Lens’ of ethical theory
Crane et al.: Business Ethics, 5thedition
Pluralistic perspective: being
pragmatic
Types of ethical theory
Different ethical theories focus on different aspects of
actions or events.
• Actions/intentions. Is an
intended action right?
• Consequences/outcome. Do
the positive outcomes
outweigh the negative
outcomes?
• Actors/character. What moral
characteristics do we value?
How can people acquire moral
virtues? How can a community
nurture virtues?
• Relationships/meaning. What
do we mean by “ethics”? How
do we use “ethics” in our
everyday lives?
Universal/absolute
(Traditional)
Situational/relative
(Contemporary)
9
Ethics of
duties
Deontology
Kantianism
Rights and justice Ethical egoism Utilitarianism
Type of ethical
theory
Actions Outcomes and
actions
Outcomes and
actions
Outcomes
Focus Duties Rights and the
nature of justice
Individual desire
and interests
Outcomes and
collective welfare
Guiding tenets Respect for
human
autonomy,
rationality and
dignity
Universalizable
rules for justice,
respect for
humans
Maximization of
desires/self
interest
Greatest amount
of good for the
greatest amount
of people
Concepts of
human beings
Humans are
rational
moral
actors with
free will
Human beings are
distinguished by
dignity
Humans are
objectively obliged
to serve their self
interest alone
Humans are
motivated by
avoidance of pain
and gain of
pleasure
Contributors Immanuel Kant John Rawls
Amartya Sen
Feminist ethics” Nanay
Fraser
Thomas Hobbes Jeremy Bentham
John Stuart Mill
Action and outcomes based ethical theories
(Traditional)
10
https://youtu.be/1mqu-gRqt3g
The Infamous Fireball! Crash Testing A Ford Pinto
Introduce normative ethical theories: origin,
universalism and differences
Utilitarianism (1)
² A utilitarian uses the following procedure to justify or condemn an action based on its
consequences:
➢Compute the benefits and harms of the consequences of any action for everyone
affected. If the action brings more total happiness than unhappiness for more
people, it is justified.
² Thus, utilitarianism is the ethical theory that uses a cost-benefit approach.
² Commonly used rationale for decision-making business
➢ Environmental cost versus job creation
➢Workforce retrenchment program
13
Utilitarianism (2)
² There are, however, some difficulties in using the utilitarian approach.
▪ How do we measure “the good”? Who decides/ measures the good?
▪ Incommensurability. How well can different goods be weighed against
each other? Eg: economic development vs an undamaged environment, a
promotion and more money vs. a loving family life. Expenditure on safety
vs more dead and injured customers.
▪ Utilitarian calculations involve predictions, at which we are bad (36.30 –
43.15)
▪ The problem of illicit means/ ‘dirty hands’ - Suppose you could save 100
people by killing three innocent children.
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Utilitarianism (3)
² And then there is global inequality...
▪ A major problem with utilitarian theory is the distribution problem. The
phrase the greatest good for the greatest number of people is
ambiguous.
➢ Amartya Sen observed that though women in India receive less health
care than men, they are happier with the level they get than are the
men. A utilitarian would recommend redistributing still more of the
women’s health care resources to the men, to maximise overall
happiness.
▪ This illustrates the problem of distributive justice: a problem of fairness, a
problem of how the goods and the burdens of the world are to be
distributed.
15
Deontology (1)
²‘Ethics of duty’ (“Deon’ being ‘duty’ in Greek).
• Refers to duties we have to do or not do certain things
regardless of other considerations
(most notably consequences)
➢ For example, ‘Thou Shalt not Kill’ doesn’t mean ‘Don’t kill
unless it would make a lot of people better off’ (re.
‘implicit means’), or ‘Don’t kill unless you really feel like
it’, it means ‘Don’t kill. Period.’ (Though this detail seems
to have been missed by many followers of the religions
embracing the principle).
• Common rationale used for setting rules in business
• Compliance with regulation is the acquittal of ethical
responsibility
• Codes of conduct as rules for ethical actions
16
▪ Intention matters:
▪ Categorical (=in all situations)
imperative (= rules or
command) is a rule that applies
in all situations
Deontology (3) The Categorical Imperative
▪ How do we decide what is a categorical imperative?
✓ Act so that you can will the maxim of your action to become a
universal law often referred to as the ‘universality’ rule
✓ Act so as never to treat another rational being merely as a
means. Often referred to as the ‘human dignity’ rule
✓ Act so that all rational beings could condone your action
often referred to as the ‘publicity’ rule, or the ‘New York Times test’
• Can be collapsed into the Golden Rule‘Treat others as you yourself wish to be treated.’
• Across cultures and religions:
Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Sikhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism,
Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Unitarianism, Native Spirituality, Baha’i
17
Deontology (4)
However, deontology has it limitations
➢ Not all problems can be solved with rules.
➢ Good intentions alone do not guarantee good results
➢ It is hard to know others (and sometimes your own)
intentions
➢ Who gets to set the rules?
➢ What happens if you agree with the rules but , due to
scarcity of means and various contingencies, you cannot
adhere to the rule?
➢ What if rules are conflicting?
➢ What is the consequences are extreme enough
➢ .
How do we know the
intentions behind
actions?
CEO apologies for
corporate mistakes on a
regular basis. How would
you assess the intentions
behind
this apology by BP
CEO?
18
Provide a framework to understand and interpret
ethics towards a pragmatic use of ethical theories -
Critique and Praxis: Focusing on Recognition.
Actor and relationships based ethical theories
(Contemporary)Virtue ethics Ethics of care
(Feminist)
Discourse ethics
(Procedural)
Focus Character of the actor Relationships Communicative
relationships
Guiding tenets Cultivating virtuous Relationships and Living/working
traits will lead to associated together requires
ethical behaviour responsibilities free and honest
inform ethics exchange and
discussion
Concept of Humans can lead Humans are Humans are
human beings virtuous traits to relational and rational individuals
lead a good life interdependent who can resolve
conflicts by a
process of
argumentation
Contributors Aristotle
Alasdair MacIntyre
Carol Gilligan many
others
Jürgen Habermas
20
Virtue ethics (1)
• Contends that morally correct actions are
those undertaken by actors with virtuous
characters. Therefore, the formation of a
virtuous character is the first step towards
morally correct behaviour
• Intellectual and moral virtues are traits that
can be acquired (learnt) and need to be
practiced
• The word ethos means character, but also
habits and dwelling place
• Virtue is acquired in daily interactions with
others, in communities, and through a process
of trial and error (MacIntyre, cited in Van
Staveren, 2007)
21
Virtue ethics and whistleblowing and
subjective aspects in ethical decision-
making.
Ibarra-Colado , Clegg , Rhodes & Kornberger (2006)
.The Ethics of Managerial Subjectivity
The basis of ethical subjectivity and whistleblowing from the perspective of virtue ethics
• Ethical Substance – Which aspects of our behaviour and managerial behaviour are
considered to be concerned with ethical judgement
• Mode of Subjection – In what ways do managers establish their relationships to ethical
rules and obligations?
• Practices of the Self – In what practices do managers engage in order to consider
themselves ethical?
• Aspirations for the Self – What are the ethics of the idealised managerial that managers
aspire to
‘I found myself on the fast track
at Ford, participating in a "tournament" type of
socialization (Van Maanen, 1978), engaged in a
competition for recognition with other MBA's who
had recently joined the company. And I quickly
became caught up in the game’. Gioia, 1992. p:380
Approaches based on procedures of norm generation
➢ Aims to solve ethical conflicts by providing a process for generating a set of
norms/principles/guidelines/rules through rational reflection on the real- life
experiences of all relevant participants
➢ Intended for public discourse to solve political/social problems
➢ Developed by Jürgen Habermas and reflective of European democracies
Key elements
➢ Ultimate goal of ethical issues in business should be the peaceful
settlement of conflicts
➢ Different parties in a conflict should sit together and engage in a discourse
about the settlement of the conflict, and ultimately provide a situation that
is acceptable to all, that is consensus
➢ ‘ideal discourse’ criteria
Discourse ethics (1)
Are we there yet?
Different ethical theories focus on different aspects
of actions or events.
• Actions/intentions. Is an intended action right?
• Consequences/outcome. Do the positive
outcomes outweigh the negative outcomes?
• Actors/character. What moral characteristics do
we value? How can people acquire moral
virtues? How can a community nurture virtues?
• Relationships/meaning. What do we mean by
“ethics”? How do we use “ethics” in our everyday
lives?
27
Deontology
Utilitarianism
Virtue ethics
Discourse ethics
Universal/absolute
(Traditional)
Situational/relative
(Contemporary)
Praxis , sustainability and ethical practice of business ethical
https://sustainingcommunity.wordpress.com/2020/03/
12/what-is-praxis/
Freire (1972, p. 52) described praxis as “reflection and
action upon the world in order to transform
Source: Rendetoff J D (2020). Philosophy of Management and Sustainability: Rethinking Business
Ethics and Social Responsibility in Sustainable Development, 19–28
What we gather firstly:
Ethics has been defined as a normative study of what norms should guide the
decision-making and social responsibility of business and economics
(Freeman, 2000; Sen, 1987).

Normative theories are applicable and applied to develop codes of conduct for
companies to guide organizational behaviour and culture as well as to maintain
compliance locally and globally.
How Sustainable business exemplifies
“integrative business ethics”

Rather than rushing to a solution, ask better questions
Foreclosure “something has been closedown before it should have been”
Jones et al. p.3
² Do not foreclose society: do not assume the ethical dilemmas sits with the
individuals, “judge structures as well as people”
² Do not foreclose the ethical: do not assume that ethical problems are
separate to business problems, ethics are everywhere
² Do not foreclose the meaning of ethics: Is ethics about duty?
consequences? self interest? rights? Fundamentally it is about our
relationships with other people
² Do not foreclose the goal of ethics: rather than search for
“the” solution, think about better ways of understanding the
problem
29
Ethical theories provide the opportunity to think through ethical issues systematically
and abstractly.
Ethical issues are everywhere in business, not just when they are labelled as such.
Traditional ethical theories focus on actions and outcomes and claim to be absolutist or
universal
Contemporary ethical theories focus on actors and relationships and claim to be contextually
situated (sometimes described as relativist)
Different ethical theories all have their particular strengths and weaknesses Ethical theories
can serve as a prism for viewing ethical problems.
Ethical pluralism is the middle ground between absolutism and relativism
Rather than focus on ethical theory as a way of finding one correct answer, you can think about
ethical theory was a way of understand the problem better (more holistically and with
openness and imagination).as a way of understanding
Summary
Reference
• Crane, A. and Matten, D. (2016): Chapter 3 'Introducing Business Ethics'.
Business Ethics. Oxford University Press: Oxford
• Heath, J., Moriarty, J. & Norman, W. (2010). Business Ethics and (or as)
Political Philosophy, Business Ethics Quarterly, 20 ( 3): 427-452
• Jones, C.; Parker, M. and Ten Bos, R. (2005) For Business Ethics. Oxon,
Routledge: Chapters 1
• Kaler, J. (1999) What's the good of ethical theory? Business Ethics - A
European Review, 8(4): 206-13.
• Van Staveren, I. (2007) Beyond utilitarianism and deontology: Ethics in
economics, Review of Political Economy, 19(1): 21 – 35.

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