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Module Title:
Governance and Economic Growth in Transition

Module Code: 7YYRN008
Department: King’s Russia Institute
Programme: MSc Russian Politics & Society

Tutor: Marc P. Berenson, Ph.D.
Email: marc.berenson@kcl.ac.uk
Office Number & Building: Bush House Northeast Wing, Room 8.08
Office Hours (Spring): Mondays 2 to 3 pm; Fridays 1 to 2 pm (By Appointment)

Credit Level: 7
Credit Value: 15
Teaching period of module: Semester 1
Lecture & Seminar Timetable: Fridays, 17 January – 28 March 2 to 4 pm
in Strand Building Room S-2.25

Assessment pattern: Class participation (10 percent of final grade)
2 x 1,500-word online tests (45 percent each; 90
percent of final grade)

Marking criteria: (see final page of outline)

First Essay Questions Available: Monday, 24 February 2025 at 10 am online
First Essay Due: Submit by Thursday, 27 February 2025 at 3 pm online

Second Essay Questions Available: Monday, 31 March 2025 at 10 am online
Second Essay Due: Submit by Thursday, 3 April 2025 at 3 pm online

Outline
The central puzzles to be addressed by the module Governance and Economic Growth in
Transition are whether economic development will be conducive to political democracy
across the twin Central and Eastern Europe and former Soviet regions more broadly (and
across Poland, Russia and Ukraine, more specifically), whether democracy fosters or hinders
material welfare, the degree to which economic growth in the regions is sustainable, and what
policy options are available to increase both growth and sustainability. The module will
address key issues including models of economic development in comparative perspective,
the importance of regime type, paths of transition from planned to market economies, the
interaction between the extractive industries and other economic sectors, the politics of
economic reform, the origins of the post-communist market economy, business regulation
and privatization.

These are the two main, overarching questions that will draw special attention in this course
and which will frame our analysis of economic growth and development in post-socialist
transition states. First, we will examine the popular and widely debated hypothesis that
economic development is a prerequisite for democracy, as well as examine a set of alternative
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hypotheses as some scholars have dismissed the economic development-as-prerequisite-for-
democracy argument. Then, we will delineate whether political regimes really do matter
when it comes to economic growth. Democracy and growth have long been considered to be
at odds with one another, but recent research has shed light on why democracy may be better
for achieving wealth than dictatorships, depending upon certain factors.

Next, we will delve more deeply into the difficult dual transition that the post-communist
region has endured over the past two to three decades with an attempt to parse out the
causal factors at play for the collapse of the socialist economy and political system, the various
political and economic outcomes that emerged across the post-communist landscape and the
economic reform course that followed. Reviewing here the economic crises, reform paths and
avenues for growth that have been pursued will enable us to assess whether and how
opportunities for future economic growth have been expanded or constrained by the nature
of the transition.

Finally, after examining two facets of the current post-communist governance and economic
model (an increase in corruption and administrative influence in the economy and reliance
on the oil/natural resource economy), we will examine what exactly is Globalization and the
post-communist region’s role in it since the marketplace is becoming more “globalized” each
year. Is the international economy a good or bad thing for Central and Eastern Europe and
Russia, and whether it provides for greater opportunities or greater constraints with respect
to achieving economic wealth.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the course, students should have:
• A knowledge of the dynamic debates regarding the origins of democracy;
• A greater comprehension of the diversity of arguments used for and against
hypotheses that certain economic perquisites are needed for democratization to
occur and whether they are appearing in the post-communist twin regions of Central
and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union today;
• A firm grasp on the different theories that link regime-types, especially democracy and
authoritarianism, to economic development as well as a firm grasp of the statistical
evidence on these linkages to date;
• An appreciation that these theories on the linkages between democracy, regime
types, economic wealth and Globalization can be applied to the Russian case as well
as to other Central and Eastern European cases;
• An ability to analyse the economic reforms and privatization plans of the 1990s from
the perspective of economic growth in Russia and Central and Eastern Europe today;
• A more nuanced interpretation as to whether and how the oil (and natural resource)
economy will continue to aid post-communist economic growth in the future;
• An ability to formulate plausible arguments in support for or against these hypotheses
and to be capable of presenting such arguments in a thoughtful, considerate and well-
articulated manner to a class audience;
• A command of what Globalization actually is, or rather on the different theoretical
perspectives as to what Globalization actually is; and
• An ability to identify ways in which Globalization may help or hurt the Russian state
and Central and Eastern Europe.
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Course Structure
Session PART I: ECONOMIC ORIGINS OF DEMOCRACY DATE
1 Introduction. Does Wealth Lead to Democracy? The Economic
Development as a Prerequisite for Democracy Argument
17 January 2025
2 Do Political Regimes Matter?
How Democracy Might Affect Growth
24 January 2025
PART II: THE DIFFICULT DUAL TRANSITION
3 What was State Socialism? What was the Soviet Union?
Why did State Socialism and the Soviet Union Collapse?
31 January 2025
4 What Accounts for
the Diversity in Post-Communist Outcomes?
7 February 2025
PART III: THE POLITICS OF ECONOMIC REFORM
5 What Was Shock Therapy? and
Building a Market Economy in Poland
14 February 2025
n/a Reading Week: No Seminar 21 February 2025
First Essay Questions Released 24 February 2025
at 10 am
First Essay Due 27 February 2025
at 3 pm
6 Building a Market Economy in Russia and Ukraine 28 February 2025
7 What Was Privatization? 7 March 2025
PART IV: POST-COMMUNIST CORRUPTION
8 Corruption and the Post-Communist Economy 14 March 2025
9 Reassessing the Post-Communist Transition 21 March 2025
PART V: THE INTERNATIONAL ARENA
10 Globalisation and the Post-Communist State:
Opportunity or Constraint?
28 March 2025
Second Essay Questions Released 31 March 2025
at 10 am
Second Essay Due 3 April 2025
at 3 pm

Preparation
Each week will specify a number of set readings that will be available through KEATS. This is
a “Level 7” module designed for postgraduate students. These readings are compulsory. The
reading for each week, as totalled for each session below, is approximately 100 pages. If you
are finding it challenging to complete the readings for each class, please speak to the
lecturer for suggestions and advice. There are ways to get through the reading faster. Whilst
reading, you should make notes about how each text fits into (1) that week’s theme and (2)
the wider questions we are asking. You should come to the seminar having things to say about
the texts you have read.

Additional Reading List
There is an additional reading list, available on KEATS, should you want to read further about
a particular week’s topic for another module, a particular writing project such as a
dissertation, etc. None of the readings on this list are compulsory for this module.
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Assessments
The assessments for this course consist of class participation (including presentations) and
two essays. There are no final exams.

Class Presentations
Each week, starting with Session #1, some 4 to 6 students will be selected to make brief
presentations (3 to 5 minutes) in the following week’s class seminar session with each student
required to make two such presentations total throughout the course of the semester. It is
each student’s responsibility to keep track and to ensure that she or he makes two
presentations during the course of the semester. To prepare for each presentation, each
student will be required to write a short reaction paper to the week’s assigned readings (of
some 350 to 450 words), which they can read or summarise in class. The short paper can be
an evaluation, comparison or contrast of the arguments behind two or more of the week’s
readings or could be an attempt to answer, with references to at least two of the week’s
readings, one of the questions posed in the brief introduction to each week’s session listed
below in this syllabus. The short paper should be aimed at sparking a discussion in class and
must be submitted via email to Dr Berenson by midnight Thursday (the night before the Friday
weekly seminar session in which the presentation will be made). Class participation marks will
be determined based on these presentations and on the level of engagement in general class
discussion throughout the semester.

Two Essays
Twice a semester, students will be given a three-day window during which they will have
access to the essay questions and must write an essay to answer one of these questions that
is no more than 1,500 words in length. Students will receive at least two short essay questions
with the requirement that they provide an answer to one of them. In writing the short essay,
students are encouraged to provide as precise, full and complete answers as possible, and
where possible, include the name(s) of relevant author(s).

Internet Sources
Keeping Up with the News! It is required that you keep up with what is going on currently,
preferably reading at least 3-5 articles a week on the governance and economies of Central
and Eastern Europe and Russia. Not only will this benefit your own understanding about the
region, but our in-class discussions will be better informed—as well as livelier!

The following sources, while not exhaustive, provide good coverage of Central and Eastern
Europe and Russia today:
• The Atlantic Council (www.atlanticcouncil.org)
• BBC News (www.bbcnews.com)
• The Economist (www.economist.com)
• The Financial Times (www.ft.com)
• The Kyiv Independent (www.kyivindependent.com)
• The Kyiv Post (www.kyivpost.com)
• The Moscow Times (www.themoscowtimes.com)
• The New York Times (www.nytimes.com)
• Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (www.rferl.org)
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• Russia Profile (http://www.russiaprofile.org)
• Russian Analytical Digest (http://www.res.ethz.ch/analysis/rad/)
• Warsaw Business Journal (http://www.wbj.pl)
• The Warsaw Voice (http://www.warsawvoice.pl)

Research Seminars
Please attend as many of the King’s Russia Institute Research Seminars (on Monday evenings
usually) as you can. The timetable can be found online. They feature world-class academics
talking about their research. Details also can be found on the King’s Russia Institute website
– www.kcl.ac.uk/russiainstitute.

Communication
In addition to logging in regularly to KEATS, it is vitally important that you maintain and access
regularly your King’s email (@kcl.ac.uk). Updates, announcements, appointments and any
other changes to the module will be announced via KEATS and/or e-mails sent to @kcl.ac.uk
addresses.


PART I: ECONOMIC ORIGINS OF DEMOCRACY

Session #1: Economic Origins of Democracy I: Introduction. Does Wealth Lead to
Democracy? The Economic Development as a Prerequisite for Democracy Argument
17 January 2025

That democracy is a product of economic development is a popular and widely debated
hypothesis in comparative politics. Similarly, a second prevalent and much argued theory is
that democratization can only occur when certain social factors—educational, religious, class
or otherwise—are met. These first two sessions will be devoted to exploring these twin
hypotheses—what they are, how they have been developed, what are their different nuances
as well as whether and to what extent they are applicable to the existing democracies around
the globe. In short, these sessions are devoted to the arguments for and against the existence
of economic and social pre-conditions for democracy.

We will begin our first session with examining the main logic behind the economic
prerequisite for democracy hypothesis. Does capitalist development, specifically, have to be
the form of economic development taken prior to democratization? Has the relationship
between capitalism and democracy varied greatly through time and space? And, what are
your initial thoughts: Is Russia an exception or a classic example as to whether increased
wealth leads to democracy?

Criticizing the Economic Development-Democracy Connection: Here we will examine the
main criticisms of the Economic Development-Democracy link. Namely, arguments that seek
to weaken this connection, suggesting instead that other factors such as the timing of
entering the market economy and the nature of the product (production) cycle matter as well.
Further considered here also will be those arguments made by the Dependency School
theorists and by those concerned with growing equality. On balance, do you find these
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hypotheses from Session #1 or their criticisms, presented in this presentation, more
persuasive, and why?

One of the criticisms of the economic development route to democratization has been that—
rather than focus on economic development—other social, religious and/or cultural aspects
arguably do indeed matter for both democratization and the consolidation of democracy.
Indeed, more pointedly, the role of culture—very much tied to religion and other attributes
that are unique from one society to the next—has been explored in terms of its relationship
to democracy through a discussion on what specific aspects of a civic culture are important
for democracy-building. Are there really any preconditions for successful, consolidated
democracy? If so, what are they? And, is democratization limited to certain parts of the globe
due to the inherent nature of certain religions, social class structures, educational
development or other specific social factors?

Considering the case of Russia today, are there any socio-economic preconditions (such as
social class structures, educational development and/or economic development) that Russia
lacks for a successful, consolidated democracy? If so, what policies could be developed to
address them? Also, considering Russia today, with its ethnic and religious diversity, are there
any factors that Russia lacks for a successful, consolidated democracy? If so, what policies
could be developed to address those as well? Is diversity good, bad or indifferent for Russia’s
economic growth?

Set Reading
Larry Diamond, “Chapter 2: Why Democracies Succeed and Fail” and “Chapter 3: The March
and Retreat of Democracy,” Ill Winds: Saving Democracy From Russian Rage, Chinese
Ambition, and American Complacency, (New York: Penguin Press, 2019), pp. 15-58.

Wojtek Grojec and Carlos Coelho, “How Autocracy Is Trending Again,” RFE/RL, Interactive web
page, again/29449280.html?itflags=mailer>, 23 August 2018.

Matthew Hamilton, What Is Bretton Woods? The Contested Pasts and Potential Futures of
International Economic Order, (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International
Peace, October 2024), pp. 1-16.

Philip Hanson, “Stagnation in Russia Is Raising Geopolitical Risks,” Chatham House Expert
Perspectives 2018, June 19, 2018, pp. 1-4.

Andrei Kolesnikov, “Why Government Economists Are Getting Nervous in Russia,” Carnegie
Moscow Center, 10 July 2019, p. 1-2.

Cynthia McClintock, “Lipset’s Legacy,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 16, No. 2 (April 2005), pp.
163-166.

Alexandra Prokopenko, “Russia’s Economic Gamble: The Hidden Costs of War Driven
Growth,” Commentary, Carnegie Politika, 20 December 2024, available at <
https://carnegieendowment.org/russia-eurasia/politika/2024/12/russia-economy-
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difficulties?lang=en&utm_source=carnegieemail&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=aut
oemail>

Adam Przeworski, Michael E. Alvarez, José Antonio Cheibub and Fernando Limongi, “What
Makes Democracies Endure?” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 7, No. 1 (January 1996), pp. 39-55.

Approx. Total Number of Pages: 95.

Bonus Reading: ‘“We Will Continue to Stagnate, Nothing Will Change” Highlights from An
Interview with Economist Konstantin Sonin,’ The Bell, 10 February 2020.


Session #2: Economic Origins of Democracy II: Do Political Regimes Matter? How
Democracy Might Affect Growth
24 January 2025

Over time, views on the relationship between regime type and economic development have
changed dramatically. In the 1960s and 1970s, democracy and economic growth were often
considered as being in competition with one another. More recently, authors often have
come to more to view a more constructive link between the two. We will examine all sides
of the debate as to whether democracies, or authoritarian regime types, are better at
producing economic growth.

Democracy, for some, is alleged to be good for economic growth because of the legitimacy it
provides to some governments to implement and sustain policies that may have high short-
term costs; because various democratic institutions, such as an independent legal system, are
required for a successful economic liberalisation; and because democratisation may limit
rent-seeking due to its system of checks and balances. Meanwhile, others have contested
that democracy may lead to policies that hamper economic growth and may be impinged by
the excessive influence of interest groups that may reduce the flexibility of the economy.
Indeed, some have argued that an authoritarian regime may be good for economic growth as
only it is in a position to introduce unpopular measures. Some of these linkages, however,
may only be valid depending upon what is the prior level of economic development. And, we
will be examining what statistical relationships do exist between regime type and economic
growth to support or dismiss these arguments.

Considering the cases in Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union today,
should increased democratization be used as a tool for economic growth? If so or if not, what
public policies should be considered?

Set Reading
Harley Balzer, “Will Russia Waste Another Crisis? The 2014-15 Economic Downturn and the
Prospects for Russian Economic Reform,” in Richard Sakwa, Mark Galeotti and Harley Balzer,
Putin’s Third Term: Assessments Amid Crisis, (Washington, DC: Center on Global Interests,
2015), pp. 29-46.

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Yegor Gaidar, “Chapter 8: Particular Features of Russia’s Economic Development,” Russia: A
Long View, (Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press, 2012), pp. 145-180.

Sergei Guriev, “How Transitional Institutions Could Transform Russia’s Economy,” Carnegie
Moscow Center, 21 November 2017, pp. 1-3.

Andrew Janos, “What Was Communism? A Retrospective in Comparative Analysis,”
Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1 (2006), pp. 1-24.

Adam Przeworski and Fernando Limongi, “Political Regimes and Economic Growth,” Journal
of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 7, No. 3 (Summer 1993), pp. 51-69.

Approx. Total Number of Pages: 99.


PART II: THE DIFFICULT DUAL TRANSITION

Session #3: The Difficult Dual Transition I: What was State Socialism? What was the
Soviet Union? Why did State Socialism and the Soviet Union Collapse?
31 January 2025

This session will examine both the collapse of communism and the end of the Soviet regime
as well as will consider the political and economic consequences of these twin events. As part
of the discussion, we will consider whether it was possible to reform the Soviet system (see,
for example, the piece from Timothy Colton below) and whether the emergence of new
political institutions was necessary. Most critical and helpful here in delineating specifically
what was the Soviet system of economy and governance is the work of Janos Kornai.

What lessons are there from the Soviet collapse for post-Soviet economic growth? Was 1991
just a management crisis? Or were other economic factors at play, and if so, what is their
relevance for future growth? In short, was downfall of state socialism and the Soviet Union
related simply to a political problem or an economic one?

Set Reading
Leon Aron, “Everything You Think You Know about the Collapse of the Soviet Union is Wrong,”
Foreign Policy, No. (187), July-August 2011, pp. 64-70.

Janos Kornai, The Socialist System: The Political Economy of Communism, (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 1992.) See especially Chapter 5: “Property,” pp. 62-90. Very much
worth examining are Chapter 3: “Power,” pp. 33-48; Chapter 4: “Ideology,” pp. 49-61; and
Chapter 7: “Planning and Direct Bureaucratic Control,” pp. 110-130.

Maria Snegovaya, “Why Russia’s Democracy Never Began,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 34,
No. 3 (July 2023), pp. 105-118.

Steven L. Solnick, “The Breakdown of Hierarchies in the Soviet Union and China: A
Neoinstitutional Perspective,” World Politics, Vol. 48, No. 2 (January 1996), pp. 209–238.
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Daniel Treisman, “Democracy by Mistake,” National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER)
Working Paper Series, No. 23944 (October 2017), pp. 1-32.

Approx. Total Number of Pages: 107.

Bonus Reading: Roman Bäcker, “Contemporary Russia: Authoritarian or Totalitarian?”
Warsaw East European Review, Vol. VII (2017), pp. 53-60.

Session #4: The Difficult Dual Transition II: What Accounts for the Diversity in Post-
Communist Outcomes?
7 February 2025

What accounts for the diversity in post-communist outcomes and what does that mean for
future pathways of economic development? This session allows us to return to the themes of
Session #2 regarding the connection between regime type and economic growth by focusing
on the specific and various outcomes that have emerged, politically and economically, across
the post-communist world. Does regime type predict economic growth? Is it history, culture,
structure, institutional design, regime type or legacy that most accounts for variation in
economic growth outcomes? Or is it none of these? Does geography or natural resources
matter more? What specifically allows for economic reforms to be continued or stalled? And,
what lessons can be taken for country cases where the reforms were stalled for a while?

Set Reading
Anders Åslund and Simeon Djankov, “Introduction,” in Anders Åslund and Simeon Djankov,
ed., The Great Rebirth: Lessons from the Victory of Capitalism over Communism, (Washington,
DC: Peterson Institute for International Economics, 2014), pp. 1-16.

Marc P. Berenson, “Chapter 1: From a Coercive to a Modern Tax State,” Taxes and Trust: From
Coercion to Compliance in Poland, Russia and Ukraine, (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press, 2018), pp. 1-11.

Joel S. Hellman, “Winners Take All: The Politics of Partial Reform in Postcommunist
Transitions,” World Politics, Vol. 50, No. 2 (January 1998), pp. 203-234.

Alexander Libman and Anastassia V. Obydenkova, “Chapter 5: Democracy,” Historical
Legacies of Communism: Modern Politics, Society, and Economic Development, (Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press, 2021), pp. 100-137.

Grigore Pop-Eleches, "Historical Legacies and Post-Communist Regime Change," Journal of
Politics, Vol. 69, No. 4 (November 2007), pp. 908-926.

Approx. Total Number of Pages: 114.



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PART III: THE POLITICS OF ECONOMIC REFORM

Session #5: The Politics of Economic Reform I: What Was Shock Therapy and Building a
Market Economy in Poland & First In-Class Test
14 February 2025

In the early 1990s, the countries across Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet
Union were faced with the difficult task of undertaking massive economic reforms and
restructuring their entire economic system. Many chose either shock therapy or gradualist
policies or both. Poland, which began the transition with the Balcerowicz plan, has been
widely regarded as a test-case for “shock therapy.” But, what really was “shock therapy”?
And, was “shock therapy” ever truly adopted in Poland?

Set Reading
Leszek Balcerowicz, “Poland: Stabilization and Reforms under Extraordinary and Normal
Politics,” in Åslund, Anders and Simeon Djankov, ed., The Great Rebirth: Lessons from the
Victory of Capitalism over Communism, (Washington, DC: Peterson Institute for International
Economics, 2014), pp. 17-38.

Timothy Frye, “Chapter 9: Poland: Robust Democracy and Rapid Reform,” in Frye, Timothy,
Building States and Markets After Communism: The Perils of Polarized Democracy, (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 213-228.

Peter Murrell, “What is Shock Therapy? What Did It Do in Poland and Russia?” Post-Soviet
Affairs, Vol. 9, No. 2 (April – June 1993), p. 111-140.

Adam Przeworski, “The Neo-Liberal Fallacy,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 3, No. 3 (July 1992),
p. 45-57.

Approx. Total Number of Pages: 77.


Reading Week: No Seminar
21 February 2025


Session #6: The Politics of Economic Reform II: Building a Market Economy in Russia and
Ukraine
28 February 2025

Russia and Ukraine, like other post-communist countries, had to build a market economy
while undertaking a dual, simultaneous transition, one coupling political and economic
reforms together. In addition, Russia embarked on an additional transition from the Soviet
Empire to the Russian state. Hence, Russia in the 1990s endured a unique “triple transition”
from a communist regime to a democratic one, from a socialist economic system to a
capitalist one and the rebirth of a nation-state after the collapse of the Soviet Empire. So, how
did all of this specifically impact upon efforts to build a market economy? Was “shock
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therapy” ever truly adopted in Russia? Should institutions have been built before economic
reforms are embarked? If so, how “perfectly designed” must they first be? Was that possible
in the Russian case? And, what does that matter for Russia today?

Set Reading
Anders Åslund, “Chapter 1: Introduction: Ukraine on the Precipice,” and “Chapter 2: Why
Ukraine Can and Should Opt for Radical Reforms Now,” Ukraine: What Went Wrong and How
to Fix It, (Washington, DC: Peterson Institute for International Economics, 2015), pp. 3-36.

Dmitri Glinski and Peter Reddaway, “What Went Wrong in Russia? The Ravages of `Market
Bolshevism,’” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 10, No. 2 (April 1999), p. 19-34.

Vladimir Popov, “Chapter 5: Transformational Recession,” in Michael Alexeev and Shlomo
Weber, eds., The Oxford Handbook of the Russian Economy, (Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press, 2013), pp. 102-131.

Cynthia Roberts and Thomas Sherlock, “Review Article: Bringing the Russian State Back In:
Explanations of the Derailed Transition to Market Democracy,” Comparative Politics, July
1999, pp. 477-498.

Approx. Total Number of Pages: 98

Bonus Reading: Verena Fritz, “Chapter 8: The Second Transition in Ukraine,” State-Building:
A Comparative Study of Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, and Russia, (Budapest: Central European
Press, 2007), pp. 175-209.


Session #7: The Politics of Economic Reform III: What was Privatization?
7 March 2025

The creation (and protection) of private property in Russia as well as elsewhere in the post-
communist region provides the engine on which a market economy can run. But, what exactly
is privatization? How effective was it in Poland, Russia, Ukraine and the region more broadly?
What alternatives were there? What other varieties of privatization plans were out there at
the time? Did Poland choose the best? Did Russia choose the best—or the worst plan? What
was the role of the West in all of this at the time? What does privatization mean for seeking
state income? Was the rise of the Oligarchs necessary? Did their rise emerge from
privatization or simply from the manner in which privatization was practiced in Russia? What
legacies endure from the 1990s privatizations today? How long will the 1990s privatizations
matter for Russia’s and the region’s economic future?

Set Reading
Nini Arshakuni and Natasha Yefimova-Trilling, “What Is the State’s Share in Russia’s
Economy?” Russsia Matters, 26 June 2019, pp. 1-7.

Joseph R. Blasi, Maya Kroumova and Douglas Kruse, Kremlin Capitalism: Privatizing the
Russian Economy, (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), p. 13-49.
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Patrick Hamm, Lawrence P. King, and David Stuckler, “Mass Privatization, State Capacity and
Economic Growth in Post-Communist Countries,” American Sociological Review, Vol. 77, No.
2, (2012), pp. 295-324.

Branko Milanovic, "For Whom The Wall Fell? A Balance Sheet of the Transition to
Capitalism," The Globalist (7 November 2014), pp. 1-4.

Approx. Total Number of Pages: 76.


PART IV: POST-COMMUNIST CORRUPTION

Session #8: Post-Communist Corruption I: Corruption and the Post-Communist Economy
14 March 2025

The reasons for corruption in Russia may well be over-determined. Given the legacies of
tsarist and Soviet rule, federalism (both ethnic and fiscal federalism as well as market-
distorting federalism), and the politics of recentralization through the rise of the “power
vertical” and associated principal-agent problems, disentangling the why’s and how’s of
corruption as well as its full impact on the prospects of economic growth may not be fully
possible. That said, though, is corruption and/or organized crime largely a product of prior
practices, regime-type, history, legacy or culture? How can its influence on the economy be
eliminated or reduced? How does corruption in Russia compare with that in Poland or
elsewhere in Central and Eastern Europe? Can we disaggregate corruption between organized
crime, administrative barriers, petty bureaucratic corruption, graft and/or top-led coercive
governance practices? Is graft simply a part of bureaucratic control? And, is corruption just
one “cost” of doing business in Russia? Or does corruption magnify distrust in the state such
that it can no longer administer or regulate the market economy effectively? Is corruption
solvable? Can it be reduced by the regime from within? Or would / can trying to solve
corruption lead to the regime’s demise, suggesting that the Kremlin should avoid undertaking
any such endeavours?

Set Reading
Anders Åslund, “Chapter 1: The Origins of Putin’s Economic Model,” Russia’s Crony
Capitalism: The Path from Market Economy to Kleptocracy, (New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press, 2019), pp. 12-37.

Marc P. Berenson, “Chapter 2: Trust and Post-Communist Policy Implementation,” Taxes and
Trust: From Coercion to Compliance in Poland, Russia and Ukraine, (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press, 2018), pp. 12-55.

Stanislav Markus, “Russia’s Oligarchs,” in Susanne A. Wengle, ed., Russian Politics Today:
Stability and Fragility, (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2022), pp. 270-292.

Vadim Volkov, “Violent Entrepreneurship in Post-Communist Russia,” Europe-Asia Studies,
Vol. 51, No. 5 (July 1999), pp. 741-754.
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Approx. Total Number of Pages: 103.

Riveting Bonus Reading: Karen Dawisha, “Chapter 6: The Founding of the Putin System: His
First Hundred Days and Their Consequences, May-August 2000,” Putin’s Kleptocracy: Who
Owns Russia?, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014), pp. 266-312.


Session #9: Post-Communist Corruption II: Reassessing the Post-Communist Transition
21 March 2025

This session will provide for a reassessment of the post-communist economic transition as a
whole, enabling students to engage with recent reflections by scholars on the reforms that
shaped the 1990s, who benefited from them, who was left behind, and whether the transition
as a whole can or should be deemed a success or not.

In addition, this session also will seek to provide a more nuanced view as to whether and how
the natural resource economy, centred on oil and gas exports, will continue to drive Russia’s
future economic growth. Will the oil growth endure? Will Russia’s economic fortunes always
follow that of the price of oil? What are the perils of relying on an oil-based economy?
Beyond the usual arguments, what is Russia doing right and what is Russia doing wrong with
respect to managing its oil/natural resource economy? What hope or promises are there for
further diversification of the economy?


Set Reading
Hilary Appel and Mitchell A. Orenstein, “Why did Neoliberalism Triumph and Endure in the
Post-Communist World?” Comparative Politics, Vol. 48, No. 3 (April 2016), pp. 313-331.

Kristen Ghodsee and Mitchell A. Orenstein, “Introduction: Transition from Communism –
Qualified Success or Utter Catastrophe?” and “Conclusion: Toward an Inclusive Prosperity,”
in Kristen Ghodsee and Mitchell A. Orenstein, Taking Stock of Shock: Social Consequences of
the 1989 Revolutions, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2021), pp. 1-17, 183-205.

Ivan Krastev and Stephen Holmes, “Imitation and Its Discontents,” in Ivan Krastev and
Stephen Holmes, The Light That Failed: A Reckoning, (London: Allen Lane, 2019), pp. 1-18.

Mikhail Strokan and Rudra Sil, “Russia’s Oil and Gas Industry: Soviet Inheritance and Post-
Soviet Evolution,” in Susanne A. Wengle, ed., Russian Politics Today: Stability and Fragility,
(Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2022), pp. 247-269.

Approx. Total Number of Pages: 100.

14
PART V: THE INTERNATIONAL ARENA

Session #10: Globalisation and the Post-Communist State: Opportunity or Constraint?
28 March 2025

In many ways, most of the evidence—and theories—regarding the linkages between
democracy and economic development were formulated in the years prior to the 1990s,
when, in many ways, a new round of globalization began. So, today, the world is globalizing.
Yes, that’s true, but is it new? And, is it a good thing? Or is it simply inevitable? Who wins and
who loses? Does Globalization mean the demise of the nation-state, or at least as we know
think of it? Or does Globalization bring yet another new realm, or sphere, by which difficult
collective action problems, including the global economy, can now be solved? Where will the
process of Globalization lead?

This session will focus on two parts: First, the long trajectory of Globalization, which began
more or less in the ‘90s—that is the 1890s!—with the rise of international trade and haute
finance will be explored, as it has set the basis for current patterns of international trade,
finance, activity and cooperation. Second, today’s globalized world has been accompanied by
a set of new transnational actors, international NGOs, calls for a global “civil society” and
arenas for inter-state cooperation, the emergence of which we will explore with respect to
the opportunities and limitations they present for resolving collective action problems and
other dilemmas related to governance and economic development.

And, all of this will be explored from the perspective of Russia and Central and Eastern Europe.
Is Globalization a good or a bad thing for Russia and/or Central and Eastern Europe today? Or
is it simply inevitable? How does Globalization help or hurt Russia today? What public policies
should be considered in post-communist Europe in order to take advantage of Globalization?

Set Reading
Christine Abely, “Chapter 11: Assessing the Sanctions” and “Conclusion,” in Christine Abely,
The Russia Sanctions: The Economic Response to Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine, (Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press, 2023), pp. 111-121.

Laszlo Bruszt and Bela Greskovits, “Transnationalization, Social Integration, and Capitalist
Diversity in the East and the South,” Studies in Comparative International Development, Vol.
44 (2009), pp. 411–434.

Harold James, “Conclusion: The Next Great Globalization,” in Harold James, Seven Crashes:
The Economic Crises That Shaped Globalization, (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,
2023), pp. 307-315.

Bobo Lo, “Chapter 3: Russia and Global Governance,” Russia and the New World Disorder,
(Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2015), pp. 71-99.

Bilyana Petrova & Aleksandra Sznajder Lee, “Integrating with the Global Economy: The
Evolution of the Export Profiles of the European Union’s Eastern Periphery (2000–2021),”
Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 76, No. 5 (2024), pp. 696-719.
15
Marc F. Plattner, “Exploring Globalization,” (Review of Thomas L. Friedman’s The Lexus and
the Olive Tree), Journal of Democracy, Vol. 10, No. 4 (October 1999), pp. 166-171.

Approx. Total Number of Pages: 102.

Riveting Bonus Reading: Andrei P. Tsygankov, “Globalization: A Russian Perspective,” in
Arlene B. Tickner and David L. Blaney, eds., Thinking International Relations Differently,
(London: Routledge, 2012), pp. 205-227.
16
Assessment Information
Note: please refer to the Student Handbook online for all details regarding the programme.

Please note:
• The Institute employs double blind marking. All work is therefore anonymous and two members of staff
mark final essays for each course. The two staff members then meet to agree on the mark.
• All written work is subject to the final approval of our External Examiners, so the mark given to your work is
not necessarily final. Once it is ratified at the Assessment Board of Examiners, it becomes final.
For further details please refer to Student Handbook online.

Word Limit Policy
An electronic word count should be noted on the front of all pieces of coursework in the coversheet. This
word count includes:
• The main text of the essay
• All footnotes/endnotes
• All quotations (whether in the main text, or in the foot-/endnotes)
• All references (whether in the main text, or in the foot-/endnotes)
The word count does not include:
• Title
• Abstract
• Bibliography
• Any text that forms part of any graphs or illustrations

Penalties for exceeding word limits
There is a 5% tolerance - no penalty is incurred for up to 5 % over the word limit. Thereafter, 2 marks will
normally be deducted for every 5%, until 50% is reached. After 50%, 3 marks will normally be deducted from
each additional 5%. There is no penalty for candidates whose work falls short of the prescribed limits. Such
work will be marked in accordance with the usual academic criteria. Nevertheless, bear in mind that the word
limit is set such as to offer guidance on the space in which a question can be fully and successfully answered.

Submission procedures
All pieces of written work must be submitted electronically via KEATS (using the link on the relevant module
area – see below).
In addition:
• All assessed essays must use proper referencing of all sources, to meet College rules on plagiarism.
You should use a scholarly system of referencing (e.g. Harvard or Chicago) fully consistently. If you are
not familiar from your undergraduate work with how to use such systems, please contact your
personal tutor or see the guide below.

Electronic submission of essays
Log in to KEATS and navigate to the folder for the relevant module. In the folder click on the Turnitin icon.
Make sure that what you upload is the FINAL VERSION of your essay WITH THE COVERSHEET, as you will not
have the opportunity to change this later. The file electronically submitted at the time of the deadline will be
taken as the final and complete submitted work, and no amendments or additions will be permitted after the
submission deadline.

Please note that you should submit your work in one of the following formats: Microsoft Word or Adobe PDF
and the maximum file size is 20MB.

You will receive a unique number when you submit your work, which you should make a note of. You are
responsible for ensuring that submitted electronic files are submitted in one of the specified acceptable file
formats, and not corrupted. Please check files on the system after submission to ensure they are valid and
correct.



17
What if I experience technical problems?
• Technical failure, including of a computer, browser or internet connection, is not a valid reason for
late submission of work, unless it can be shown to have been as a result of a failure of the College’s IT
systems, and that there was no reasonable course of action you could have taken to submit the work
on time.
• If the online submission system is down, contact your department office immediately. If we confirm
that there has been a technical failure, we will notify all candidates by email, and extend the
submission window until 24 hours after we have notified you (by email) that the problem has been
rectified.

CHECKLIST FOR SUBMISSION
• Essays should be typed or word-processed, double-spaced and on one side only of A4 paper.
• Please number the pages continuously.
• You are required to upload the coursework to KEATS.
• You are required to complete a Cover Sheet for each essay on which you should enter your Candidate
Number (available from the Examinations Office), word count, the essay and course title.
• Please DO NOT put your name on any piece of written work.
• Adhere to the word limit, with an electronic count noted on the cover page.
• Have a bibliography/list of works cited.
• Have a consistent system of references for quotations and paraphrases.
• Abide by the current regulations regarding plagiarism.

To repeat, when you submit your essays, you need to submit an electronic copy.

Late submissions
You must ensure that written work is completed by the deadlines set. Work submitted up to 24 hours late will
be marked, but capped at the pass mark rather than receive a result of 0. Work submitted any later will receive
a mark of zero and will be deemed to have failed.

If you are unable to meet the deadline for submission of written work through illness or a serious personal
problem, please follow the Mitigating Circumstances procedures.

Please note that computer failure will not be considered adequate grounds for an extension. If you are word-
processing your work you should be sure to take adequate backups and to print out a copy in good time.

Mitigating circumstances
From time to time, unforeseen circumstances, outside a student’s control, can have a significant detrimental
effect on his/her performance. These are called Mitigating Circumstances.

Extensions requests - if you are unable to meet a deadline for the submission of written work, you should use
the form available online (Extension Request Form) or
to request an
extension to a deadline as soon as you become aware that you will be unable to meet the original published
deadline. You can submit the form, along with appropriate documentary evidence, any time before the
deadline.

Please note that work submitted late will only receive a mark if the mitigating circumstances are considered
acceptable. If your mitigating circumstances are considered unacceptable your coursework will be deemed late
and will receive a mark of zero as per College policy.
Completed forms must be submitted to the Institute Administrator in K0.50 King’s Building.

Further information - further guidance on Mitigating Circumstances, including what does and does not
constitute Mitigating Circumstances, can be found here or
.


18
References
Students are strongly recommended to use the MHRA style book (you can download this for free at
http://www.mhra.org.uk/Publications/Books/StyleGuide/download.shtml , or The Chicago Manual of Style, for
guidance. You will find hard copies of these in the Maughan Library.
For all academic assignments it is vital that you acknowledge the sources of information you have used for
your research. This will help you protect yourself against charges of plagiarism and also demonstrate that you
understand the importance of professional academic work. You must acknowledge your sources whenever you
paraphrase or summarise another person's ideas, or when you quote another person's work, or use tables,
graphs, images, etc. which you have found from another source, whether printed or online. This guide explains
how this is done in the MHRA (Modern Humanities Research Association) Style.

Introducing the MHRA style
Whenever you refer to another’s words or ideas in your work, insert a footnote number in your text. When
referring to the publication for the first time, give full bibliographic details in the footnote. Subsequent
references can then be provided in an abbreviated form.

Example
References should be given for ‘all direct or indirect quotations, and in acknowledgement of someone’s
opinions, or of a source of factual information which is not general knowledge’.1 Li
and Crane point out that the main objective of citing references is to give sufficient information to allow
sources to be located.2 Additionally, ‘another important principle is to make reference
to that information in the source in hand. As a rule, it is not necessary to provide supplementary information
that has to be located elsewhere’.3 General overviews of the process of citing references are given by
Bosworth and Craig and in Walliman.4
______________________
1 Nicholas S.R. Walliman, Your Research Project: A Step-by-step Guide for the First-time
Researcher (London: SAGE, 2001), p. 301.
2 Xia Li and Nancy B. Crane, Electronic Styles: A Handbook for Citing Electronic Information,
2nd edn (Medford, NJ: Information Today, 1996), p. 3.
3 Ibid., p. 3.
4 David P. Bosworth, Citing Your References: A Guide for Authors of Journal Articles and
Students Writing Theses or Dissertations (Thirsk, N Yorks: Underhill Press, 1992); P.
Craig, ‘How to Cite’, Documentation Studies, 10 (2003), 114-122; Walliman, pp. 300-313.

Inserting footnotes
Wherever possible, place numbers at the end of the sentence, after the full stop. Be consistent in your
approach and use continuous numbering throughout the text, starting at number one. For theses, restart the
numbering at the beginning of each chapter. When you refer to several sources close together in the same
paragraph, use one footnote number and enter a reference for each source, separated by a semi-colon. To
insert footnotes in Microsoft Word, position the cursor in the text where you wish the number to be placed.
On the menu bar, select Insert – Reference – Footnote. In the dialogue box which opens, click on Insert to add
a footnote.

Directly quoting from your sources
You should aim to paraphrase information provided by an author in your own words rather than quote large
amounts of their work verbatim as this helps to demonstrate to the reader your understanding of the
information. It may be necessary to quote directly from the text when you:
• cannot present the information more succinctly or in any other way
• need to present a particular portion of an author’s text in your work to analyse it.

If the quotation is short (fewer than 40 words of prose or 2 complete lines of verse), enclose the writer’s words
in single quotation marks within your sentence and insert a footnote number:
Mackintosh’s Glasgow School of Art ‘heralded the birth of a new style in 20th century
European Architecture’.1
Longer quotations should be separated from the body of your text and indented from the left-hand margin.
There is no need to include quotation marks:

19
Bernard outlines his design ethos:
Mackintosh’s firm belief that construction should be decorated and not decoration
constructed, in other words that the salient and most requisite features should be
selected for ornamentation, he applied with great rhythm and inventiveness, especially in those
projects, such as the Glasgow School of Art and Scotland Street School, where budgets were severely
limited. 2
This theme is taken further by Macleod.3
If you omit some words from the middle of the quotation, you need to indicate this by typing three dots in
square brackets, e.g. ‘The state has an essential role […] in the legal definition of property rights’.4 If you are
omitting lines of verse, write […] on a separate line.

Referencing sources for the first time
When referencing a source for the first time in your piece of work, provide full bibliographic details in the
footnote:
• Write the author’s name(s) as it appears on the text: put the author’s forename(s) or initials first,
followed by their surname. If there are more than three authors, write the first author’s name
followed by ‘and others’.
• Italicise the titles of books and journals.
• Capitalise the first letter of all principal words throughout the title and after the colon, if there is a
subtitle.
• Include the specific page number(s) referenced at the end by writing p. or pp. followed by the page
number(s).
• Write references for online publications using the format for printed publications as far as possible,
adding the and the [accessed date].
• Indent the second and subsequent line of each reference.

Book
Robert Abel, The Eye Care Revolution: Prevent and Reverse Common Vision Problems (New York: Kensington
Books, 2004), p. 10.

Journal article
Lawrence Ang and Ben Taylor, ‘Managing Customer Profitability Using Portfolio Matrices’, Journal of Database
Marketing and Customer Strategy Management, 12 (2005), 298-304 (p. 300).

Chapter in an edited book
Tadao Ando, ‘Towards New Horizons in Architecture’, in Theorizing a New Agenda for Architecture, ed. by Kate
Nesbitt (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996), pp. 462-530 (p.473).

Newspaper article
Bertrand Benoit, ‘G8 Faces Impasse on Global Warming’, Financial Times, 29 May 2007, p. 9.

PhD Thesis
Alun R.J. Withey, ‘Medical Knowledge and Practice in Early Modern Wales’ (unpublished doctoral thesis,
Cardiff University, 2006), p. 17.

Electronic journal article
Anwar T. Merchant and others, ‘Diet, Physical Activity, and Adiposity in Children in Poor and Rich
Neighbourhoods: A Crosssectional Comparison’, Nutrition Journal, 6 (2007)
http://www.nutritionj.com/content/pdf/1475-2891-6-1.pdf [accessed 10 May 2007] (p. 1).

Web page
Christel Lane and others, The Future of Professionalised Work: UK and Germany Compared (London: Anglo-
German Foundation for the Study of Industrial Society, 2003)
[accessed 12 December 2007] (p. 11).

Sound recording
20
Jean Sibelius, Symphony No.1 Op.39 in E Minor: The Oceanides. City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra.
Cond. Simon Rattle, CD, EMI CDM 7 64119 2 (1991).

Images, figures and tables
Fig. 1. List of housing performance indicators for multi-family residential buildings.1

Further references to the same source
If you reference the same source more than once in a particular piece of work, abbreviate the second and
subsequent references by providing only the author and page numbers. Use the abbreviation Ibid. (meaning in
the same place) to refer to a reference immediately above:
1 William J.R. Curtis, Modern Architecture since 1900, 3rd edn (London: Phaidon, 1996),
pp. 124-32.
2 Ibid., p. 133.
3 James Stevens Curl, A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, 2nd edn
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 1.
4 Curtis, pp. 56-78.

Bibliography
At the end of your work, list each of the sources you have referenced, and any other works you have read in
relation to the subject, in a bibliography. Write the list in alphabetical order by the first author’s surname,
placing their surname before their forename(s) or initial(s). There is no need to include the specific page
reference in a bibliography, but page ranges for edited book chapters and journal articles are required. You
should also exclude the full stop at the end of the reference:
Borden, Iain, and Katerina Ruedi, The Dissertation: An Architecture Student’s Handbook, 5th edn
(Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006)
Craig, P., ‘How to Cite’, Documentation Studies, 10 (2003), 114-122
Stott, Rebecca, Anna Snaith and Rick Rylance, Making Your Case: A Practical Guide to Essay Writing (Harlow:
Longman, 2001)

Publication dates and editions
To find out when a book was published, look at the back of the title page. This page will contain details of the
publisher and the publication date. If there is more than one date, use the latest publication date, not the
latest reprint date. This is often located next to the © symbol.
If no publication date is given in the book but it can be ascertained, put the year in square brackets e.g. [1989].
If no year can be determined write [n.d.], meaning no date.
The back of the title page will also tell you the edition of the book. If the book you are acknowledging is not
the first edition, state this in the full reference in your footnote and bibliography e.g:
Alan Everett, Materials, 5th edn (Harlow: Longman, 1994), pp. 102-24.

Plagiarism
Plagiarism is a serious academic offence and will not be tolerated by King’s Russia Institute. All work submitted,
as part of the requirements for any examination or assessment of the College or of the University of London
must be expressed in your own words and incorporate your own ideas and judgements. Plagiarism is the
presentation of another persons’ thoughts, words, judgements, ideas, etc., as your own. Direct quotations from
the published or unpublished work of others, including work published electronically, must always be identified
as such by being placed inside quotation marks (if less than four lines long) or receiving a block quotation (if
more than four lines long), and a full reference to their source must be provided in the proper form. A series of
short quotations from several different sources, if not clearly identified as such, constitutes plagiarism just as
much as does a single unacknowledged long quotation from a single source. Equally, if you paraphrase another
person’s ideas or judgements, you must refer to that person in your text, and include the work referred to in
your bibliography.

An allegation of plagiarism can result in action being taken under the Regulations Governing Examination and
Assessment Offences. It is a reasonable working assumption that work for which plagiarism is proved will be
awarded a mark of zero. As well, a proven allegation of plagiarism can result in a range of other penalties
depending on the seriousness of the case. You should therefore consult the Programme Co-ordinator if you are
in any doubt about what is permissible.
21


Taught Postgraduate Generic Marking Criteria

The College marking criteria set out below should be read in conjunction with discipline-specific criteria as appropriate and should be viewed as a starting point. The College marking
criteria provides guidance on the overall standards expected at different grade bands but discipline-specific criteria may be needed in order to ensure that marking decisions are
consistent, fair and transparent to both staff and students.


Level 7
An exceptional answer that reflects outstanding knowledge of material and critical ability ~ Distinction ≥ 70

Understanding

Depth of knowledge

Structure

General

Advanced, in-depth, authoritative, full
understanding of key issues with
evidence of originality

Complex work, key issues analysed,
wide range of sources used
selectively to support
argument/discussion


Strong evidence of critical approach
to key issues and ability to evaluate
arguments

Coherent and compelling
work logically presented

A++ (90-100) Insightful work displaying in-depth knowledge. For research dissertation/project: publishable quality,
outstanding research potential, originality and/or independent thought, ability to make informed judgments. Highest
standards of presentation .

A+ (80-89) Insightful work displaying in-depth knowledge. For research dissertation/project: work of publishable
quality, excellent research potential, originality and/or independent thought, ability to make informed judgments. High
standards of presentation.

A (70-79) Thoughtful work displaying in-depth knowledge. For research dissertation/project: good research potential,
evidence of independent thought, ability to make informed judgments. High standards of presentation.
A coherent answer that demonstrates critical evaluation ~ Merit 60-69

Understanding

Depth of knowledge

Structure

General

In-depth understanding of key
issues with evidence of some
originality

Key issues analysed, relevant sources
used effectively to support
argument/discussion

Clear evidence of critical approach to
key issues and some ability to
evaluate arguments

Coherent work
logically
presented

B+ (65-69) Thoughtful work displaying good knowledge and accuracy. For research dissertation/project: some
evidence of research potential, clear thinking and/or ability to make informed judgments. Good standards of
presentation.

B (60-64) Work displays good knowledge and accuracy. For research dissertation/project: some evidence of clear
thinking and/or ability to make informed judgments. Good standards of presentation.

22
A coherent and logical answer which shows understanding of the basic principles ~ Pass 50 - 59

Understanding

Depth of knowledge

Structure

General

Understanding of some key issues with
evidence of ability to reflect critically

Some key issues addressed, relevant
sources used to support
argument/discussion

Some evidence of critical approach
to key issues and ability to evaluate
arguments

Competent work in
places but lacks
fluency/coherence
C+ (55-59) Work displays knowledge and understanding in most areas but the standard of work is variable. For
research dissertation/project: evidence of clear thinking in places but lacks insight. Satisfactory standards of
presentation.


C (50-54) Work displays knowledge and understanding in some areas but some key issues are not addressed. For research
dissertation/project: some evidence of clear thinking but lacks insight and fluency. Satisfactory standards of presentation.
A superficial answer with limited knowledge of core material and limited critical ability ~ Fail 40 – 491

Understanding

Depth of knowledge

Structure

General

Superficial understanding of some key
issues, lack of focus

Key issues not always understood or
addressed, gaps in use of relevant
sources to support work

Limited evidence of a critical
approach to key issues and ability to
evaluate arguments

Weaknesses in
structure, fluency
and/or coherence

F+ (40-49) Work displays patchy knowledge and understanding and some key issues are not addressed. For the
research dissertation/project: limited evidence of clear thinking, insight and/or fluency. Presentational weaknesses.
An answer almost entirely lacking in evidence of knowledge and understanding ~ Fail 0-39

Understanding

Depth of knowledge

Structure

General

Lack of understanding of, or focus on
key issues

Key issues misunderstood or not
addressed, limited or no use of
relevant sources to support work

No evidence of a critical approach to
key issues or ability to evaluate
arguments

Work is confused and
incoherent

F (33-39) Incomplete answers with only peripheral knowledge relevant to the questions. Displays poor, disorganized
presentation.

F (20-32) Some attempt to write something relevant but with many flaws; nothing of substance,

F (0 -19) Serious errors, largely irrelevant material or unacceptably brief.


Approved CASC March 2015
1 A mark ≥40 - <50 is condonable where programme specific regulations permit


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